School of International Relations & Diplomacy

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Gender equality as a means to women empowerment? Consensus,challenges and prospects for post-2015 development agenda in Africa
(Routledge, 2015-08-26) Onditi, Francis; Odera, Josephine
In this paper, we have examined gender equality and women’s empowerment (GEWE) as reflected in the millennium development goals (MDGs) as well as the conceptualization and localization of the sustainable development goals (SDGs). The paper adopts Amartya Sen’s women agency conceptual framework to advance the thesis of this article that while there is general consensus on achieving gender equality and women’s empowerment, the MDGs adopted in 2001 fell far short of fulfilling this consensus and that the incoming SDGs must respond to fundamental issues of GEWE from both quantitative and qualitative perspectives. This paper addresses the issues of conceptualization, context, and design of MDGs and how lessons learnt in its implementation inform SDGs. The question is, will GEWE maintain any pride of place? Analysis in the paper reveals that qualitative indicators such as human rights, equity, and capabilities were silent in the MDG design, constructs, and implementation. The paper suggests that the understanding and putting in place of mechanisms for continuous assessment of the human-centered indicators, such as quality of life, as part of the SDGs’ localization efforts portend increasing effectiveness of SDGs toward addressing gender-sensitive issues of social exclusion, inequality, and resource distribution, which have a great bearing on sustainable development.
The Making of “Gender Diplomacy” as a Foreign Policy Pillar in Kenya and Namibia
(Rowman and Littlefield, 2019-08-16) Onditi, Francis
Can the “gender equality” norm stand out as a “game-changer” in shaping a country’s foreign policy and diplomatic engagements? African states, like many other nations globally, often influence regional and global processes through foreign policy tools such as trade, politics, governance, law, and defense, as well as international norms such as gender equality (Crapol 1994). Gender-minded international relations theorists interpret international system by drawing from salient issues that influence women-men power relations (Youngs 2004). On this note, feminist scholars have argued that issues such as the international political economy, women rights, and women empowerment can be effective instruments of moderating women-men power relations when they become part and parcel of a country’s foreign policy (Tickner 1992; Peterson 1992). Despite the fact that gender equality norms have existed since 1970s (Stevenson 2016), African nations are still bedeviled with divergent conceptual and methodological problems in an attempt to bridge the gender gap in their foreign policies. Moreover, in most developing societies, foreign policies are often a product of a historically and structurally male-dominated patriarchal system (Porter 2013). This, therefore, explains why there are fewer women diplomats. The exclusive diplomatic space in Africa is partly attributed to the paucity of scholarship on the link between gender equality and diplomatic theory and practice. It is rare to find a well-articulated idea in the International Relations (IR) scholarship on how effective gender norms could be integrated in diplomacy. Classical liberal icons in the study of IR such as John Locke, Adam Smith, Immanuel Kant, Giuseppe Mizzini, and John Stuart Mill identify four fundamental principles and institutions that characterize liberalism; Chapter 21
How "Organized hypocrisy" within the standby force is pulling African institutions from the global influence
(Rowman and Littlefield, 2019-08-12) Onditi, Francis; ; ;
Organized hypocrisy (henceforth shortened to OH) as a concept brings to the fore the importance of understanding how organizations manage conflicting forces. These forces might otherwise render an organization incapable of effective action and threaten its capability to deliver on its mandate. Much of these organizational dynamics can be understood and illuminated in terms of institutional evolution. Since the restoration of the African Union (AU) in 2002, the continental body and associated institutions have been evolving steadily. In spite of this progress, the organization has been perceived as being too bureaucratic and hypocritical, particularly after the AUs regional mechanism the African Standby Forces (ASFs) failed to achieve the full operational capability in 2015.
Technologizing Infrastructure for Peace in the Context of Fourth Industrial Revolution
(Springer, Cham, 2020-07-14) Onditi, Francis; Gateru, Robert
This chapter builds on Ayse Ceyhan’s ‘technologization of security’ thesis to suggest alternative ways of harnessing technology for peacebuilding beyond physical security. We argue that in as much as technology is key to the various dimensions of security, its current application remains overly a ‘hard security’ issue (surveillance, biometrics and military intelligence). Yet, the emerging peace and security architecture is deeply rooted in human security facets that requires multidimensional approach. Application of technology to peace and security has also been found to generate new social challenges. For example, in politically charged ethnic societies, researchers have established a significant correlation between cell phone coverage and occurrence of violence. The concern of this chapter is therefore to explore ways of harnessing the ‘constructive’ attributes of technology for peace, at the same time define the ‘negative externalities’ resulting from ‘fusion of technology’ to the infrastructure of peace (I4P) within the fourth industrial revolution (4IR) environment.
Conflict Resolution and Freedom in Africa
(Lexington Books, 2021-08) Onditi, Francis
Peacebuilding in Africa: The Post-Conflict State and Its Multidimensional Crises argues that building enduring peace in post-conflict states in Africa requires comprehensive, state-specific approaches that address the multidimensional crises that generated civil conflict and instabilities in these countries. Contributors examine states such as Burundi, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Liberia, Rwanda, Sierra Leone, South Sudan, and Sudan to demonstrate that peacebuilding projects in each of these states must address the cultural, economic, political, and social root causes of their respective underlying civil conflicts. In addition, contributors prove that peacebuilding projects must be shaped by the centrality of human security: the respect for ethno-cultural diversity, the advancement of human material well-being, the protection of political rights and civil liberties, and the redesigning of the military and security architecture to ensure the safety of all citizens from both internal and external threats.
Masculinity in Congolese Society
(Palgrave Macmillan, Cham, 2021-08-21) Onditi, Francis; Odera, Josephine
Hegemonic masculinity is identified as one of the norms in some African societies, undermining the fight against gender inequality and violence. This chapter, therefore, explores hegemonic masculinities and their flip side—positive masculinity—and how the latter is reshaping the gender equality narrative. The chapter presents a unique case study example of these types of masculinities from fragile and conflict-affected country (FCAC) situations in Africa. In particular, the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) is given as an example of where positive masculinity emerges as a potential agent of social change that, if utilized effectively, could lay the foundations for effective implementation of UNSCR 1325 and other frameworks that seek to empower and protect women. The discussion in the chapter utilizes some of the latest scholarship on masculinities (James Messerschmidt, 2019) and societal cultural orientation, and considers the factors that create and recreate hegemonic masculinity in conflict-prevalent locations. This chapter uniquely brings out the evolution of positive masculinity in Congolese society, presenting six ways in which hegemonic masculinity is sustained in FCAC countries and the threats it poses to the implementation of the various Women, Peace and Security frameworks.
Developing “Social Pendulum Theory of Access” to Explain the (Un) changing Urban Geography
(Palgrave Macmillan, Cham, 2022-08-22) Onditi, Francis
The aim of this chapter is to provide some insights drawn from our experiences theorizing about the access mechanisms in urban slum spaces and, in doing so, to shed some light on the current state of access in the context of a rapidly changing urban demographics. In the last four decades (1989–2019), Nairobi has experienced change from simple settlements of urbanites to a complex galaxy of people competing for ever-shrinking space and the diminishing resources. This change has induced evolution of new coping strategies among residents, including micro-migratory activities along the swing-like patterns in search of livelihoods and identity. This swing-like movements are antithetical to the existing access mechanisms, which tend to rely on fixed residential regime (in situ). In this changing phenomenon, access can no longer be narrowly defined as the “right to benefit from things” or merely “bundle of powers”; rather, it should be framed to accentuate the pendulum-like swings. Hence, our proposed theory of access is based on this pendulumic analogy.
The ‘invisible force’ in the downfall of the African Standby Force
(African Institute of South Africa, 2022) Onditi, Francis
This chapter tries to create a better understanding of the African PSO environment, by instructively re-examining the evolution and contours of the ASF structures, particularly in relation to the peace operations in Africa. A decade ago, some scholars questioned the sustainability of ASF. For example, how was it configured to fit into the existing institutions and norms? Was the ASF conceptualised as a multidimensional outfit? How does it fit into the national peace and security architectures? Are there ‘invisible hands’ in the establishment of this structure? If yes, for whom was the ASF established to serve? In view of this conceptual and policy lacuna, some would argue that there is need to address civil-military tensions and determine the required institutional coherence.
Human Security and Sustainable Development in East Africa
(Routledge, 2022) Onditi, Francis
This chapter analyzes the case of Somali refugees in Kenya to illustrate how securitization by a state actor may contribute to human insecurity and explores alternative approaches that enhance human security. Even though Kenya appears determined to get rid of the terror threats for both security and economic reasons, lack of adherence to the deontic rights of refugees, leads to the formation of identities such as the intra-resistant refugee terrorists. This symbolizes a deepening of criminal networks and civil disobedience, resulting from the securitization of the refugee crisis, at the expense of human security approaches. The existing counter-terrorism strategies in the context of the refugee management regime in the country are military-driven with limited consideration for human security pillars. However, to successfully deal with the menace on a long-term basis, it is imperative to develop a grand strategy that encompasses preventive measures, including the synchronization of strategies between state and non-state actors.
Contemporary Africa and the Foreseeable World Order
(Rowman & Littlefield, 2019-04-01) Onditi, Francis; Ben-Nun, Gilad; D'Alessandro, Cristina; Levey, Zach
Contemporary Africa and the Foreseeable World Order sheds light on the place of "Africa Agency” in the competitive and changing global system. This book provides scholars, policymakers, and other stakeholders studying and working on African issues with innovative solutions, strategies, knowledge, insights, case studies, and analyses to support decision-making on how best African states should position themselves in the dynamic global system in order to influence key decisions. Featuring themes such as the African Union (AU) and the consequences of the discovery of oil in the non-traditional oil exporting countries, the editors and contributors have demonstrated why and how Africa’s position in the foreseeable world order is largely dependent on the influence of both existing and emerging world powers.
Conflictology
(Lexington Books, 2020-05) Onditi, Francis
Over the past three decades scholars, students and policy makers studying and engaged in conflict resolution have veered between conflict management and resolution. However, the changing nature of conflict, which is taking the form of radicalization and extremism are deeply rooted in individual's ideology, personalities and genes, hence, rendering the conventional macro-level power balance analytics obsolete. The psychology and human genetics are at the center of this evolution. This shift in conflict trends and methods of warfare in Africa and the world over demands that we search for alternative approaches, mechanisms, and innovative response. It is against this background that this new book initiates a fundamental debate on how interdisciplinary adventure could increase the understanding off man-kind and the socio-biological systems surrounding man, hence, the emphasis on the discispline of Conflictology to embody scientific approaches, methods and prescription to conflict resolution. For instance, does individual's gene influence human behaviours, such as "hate"? If so, can this be corrected through gene transposition? If human relations should be anchored on "peace", what are these genetic and behavioural factors that create "hate" and "violence"? How then, should such a gene or neurobiological system be altered in order to prevent extremism and radicalization?
Illusions of Location Theory: Consequences for Blue Economy in Africa
(Canadian Journal of African Studies / Revue canadienne des études africaines, 2023-04-23) Onditi, Francis; Yates, Douglas
This book was conceptualised in response to pressing concerns arising in Africa related to land and maritime boundary disputes, the fragility of landlocked countries and how these issues of “location” – in its broadest sense – impact on the development of the blue economy in Africa. This also relates to concerns about the “limits to growth” expressed nearly fifty years ago by the Club of Rome (Meadows et al. Citation1972, 23) as follows: If the present growth trend in the world population, industrialization, pollution, food production and resource depletion continue unchanged, the limits to growth on this planet will be reached sometime within the next one hundred years. The most probable result will be a rather sudden and uncontrollable declining in both population and industrial capacity. The blue economy (also known as blue growth) has emerged as one of the alternative models of development to ensure inclusive growth and prosperity in the world (see Attri and Bohler-Muller Citation2018). Editors Onditi and Yates essentially focus on the intersections between location theory and the blue economy by gathering the viewpoints of scholars and practitioners across numerous disciplines, including experts in international relations and international law, political science, geography, environmental studies, economics, African affairs, and peace and development studies, aimed at understanding these complex and intertwined concepts in a world facing food, water and energy insecurity and increasing regional and sub-regional conflicts. Illusions of Location Theory tackles these issues in three parts: Section I: Coastal–Hinterland Epistemologies; Section II: Coastal–Hinterland Continuum; and Section III: Smart Blue Economies. The dominant theme in Section I, which shapes the book, is around re-thinking location theory to include aspects of inter-state relations, and the impact of divisions, inequality, spatiality and geopolitics on the blue economy.
Gender Inequalities in Africa’s Mining Policies
(Springer Singapore, 2022-04-18) Onditi, Francis
This book develops a discursive ‘equalitarian’ theoretical framework for studying African mining ecosystem issues and policy interventions. The theory of ‘equalitarianism’ is developed as an alternative to the reductionist approach that has dominated post-colonial debates about the classical jus ad bellum requirements to empower women in development spaces. However, the classical approach narrows the debate down to “women issues,” rather than the ‘whole-of-society.’ As a consequence of this reductionism, women continue to be devalued in the mining sector, characterized by poverty traps, power struggles, and a lack of capacity to engage in large-scale mining (LSM) activities. This book advances principles for a holistic approach, and spells out the implications for women across the mining value chain. Drawing on moral scholarship, the book poses that for women to gain access to strategic spaces in the mining sector, the drive for empowerment must be embedded within ‘whole-of-society’ principles. This book is of interest to scholars researching gender policy, public policy, political philosophy, conflictology, and human geography. It also offers practitioners a guide for evaluating their policy work on mainstreaming gender in the mining sector, presenting options for financing, forging partnership and planning for an inclusive economic development in Africa, and beyond.
Understanding Violence Against Women in Africa
(Palgrave Macmillan Cham, 2021-08-23) Onditi, Francis; Odera, Josephine
This textbook provides students across Social Sciences, Humanities, Politics, and International Studies with an in-depth understanding of the issues, policies, and strategies for addressing the symptoms and root causes of violence against women (VAW) in sub-Saharan Africa. This text uses the United Nations Security Council’s Resolution 1325 (UNSCR 1325) on Women, Peace and Security in Eastern and Southern Africa as a framework to present the causes and impacts of VAW and to trace the journey of sub-Saharan African countries toward gender equality. It also provides an overview of the policy and legislative frameworks that underpin the progress, challenges, and achievements of addressing VAW based on four key pillars: prevention, protection, participation, and relief and recovery. Chapters provide a wealth of knowledge, as the book draws on academic literature; national, regional, and international legislations; and data collected from field research, and makes use of end-of-chapter discussion questions and quick study guides. Students will come away equipped with the tools, resources, and knowledge necessary to address and fix VAW in sub-Saharan Africa and beyond.
The Palgrave Handbook of Diplomatic Thought and Practice in the Digital Age
(Palgrave Macmillan Cham, 2023-08-02) Onditi, Francis; McLarren, Katharina; Ben-Nun, Gilad; Stivachtis, Yannis A.; Okoth, Pontian
This handbook integrates a range of conceptual and empirical approaches to diplomacy in the context of ongoing technological and societal change. Technological and societal disruptions affect modern diplomacy, altering its character and reforming its way. In light of such changes, this book offers both historical foundations and contemporary perspectives in the field. By doing so, it demonstrates how contemporary change impacts the work of diplomats representing sovereign states. Global diplomatic services will forever be affected by the digitalization of engagement between states during and after the COVID-19 pandemic. In this rapidly changing culture, with burgeoning geopolitical and geostrategic realignment among global powers, the tools of diplomacy have changed. The state’s foreign policy astuteness and responses to these changes could have long-term impacts. All this culminates in opportunities for improving the management of diplomatic services and efficiency of the Ministries of Foreign Affairs (MoFA) of various states. This book provides useful insights into how modern diplomacy works, especially the integration of informalities into formal diplomatic practices in complex peace and security environments, within such a framework of change.
Reimagining Security Communities
(Palgrave Macmillan Cham, 2021-05-25) Onditi, Francis; Ben-Nun, Gilad; Were, Edmond M.; Nyadera, Israel Nyaburi
This book utilizes a systems thinking perspective to propose a holistic framework of analysis and practice for the regional security community (“RSC”) arrangement in Africa. In responding to the challenge of improving effectiveness of response to peace and security threats, African states tend to rely on ad hoc mechanisms. However, this approach has been mired with a myriad of structural limitations. The holistic framework reconfigures the traditional “RSC” into a simplified tool kit of “resources”, making this textbook ideal for students and advanced researchers in international relations, and all those concerned with regional security and strategic studies.

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